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What Are Pathogens? | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
What Are Pathogens? | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
What Are Pathogens? | Health | Biology | FuseSchool
Capsules from pathogenic and non-pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells [1]
Capsules from pathogenic and non-pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells
manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells. Capsule production is common among bacterial species, but relatively rare in eukaryotic microorganisms
Although the lack of virulence of many species of the Cryptococcus genus can be explained solely by the lack of mammalian thermotolerance, it is uncertain whether the capsules from these organisms are comparable to those of the pathogenic cryptococci. In this study, we compared the characteristic of the capsule from the non-pathogenic environmental yeast Cryptococcus liquefaciens with that of C
Bacterial capsule [2]
The bacteria capsule is a large structure common to many bacteria.[1] It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.[2][3]
When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as a slime layer. Capsule and slime layer are sometimes summarized under the term glycocalyx.
Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains cannot penetrate the capsule. To visualize encapsulated bacteria using a microscope, a sample is treated with a dark stain, such as India ink
Capsules from pathogenic and non-pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells [3]
Capsules from pathogenic and non-pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells
manifest significant differences in structure and ability to protect against phagocytic cells. Capsule production is common among bacterial species, but relatively rare in eukaryotic microorganisms
Although the lack of virulence of many species of the Cryptococcus genus can be explained solely by the lack of mammalian thermotolerance, it is uncertain whether the capsules from these organisms are comparable to those of the pathogenic cryptococci. In this study, we compared the characteristic of the capsule from the non-pathogenic environmental yeast Cryptococcus liquefaciens with that of C
The bacterial capsule is a gatekeeper for mobile DNA [4]
The bacterial capsule is a gatekeeper for mobile DNA. The horizontal transfer of mobile DNA is one of the signature moves of bacterial evolution, but the specific rules that govern this transfer remain elusive
For billions of years, bacteria have populated almost every corner of Earth, showing an unparalleled ability to adapt to different environments and conditions. One key bacterial adaptation is the capsule, an outer layer of polysaccharides that covers the cells of many different bacterial species
As a consequence, capsules are important virulence factors, and some capsular types are strongly associated with virulent strains of human pathogens [1].. But how do bacteria acquire ecologically relevant traits such as the capsule? Bacteria are known to engage in horizontal gene transfer (HGT), a process by which bacteria acquire mobile genetic elements (MGEs) carrying specific traits that fuel their evolution
The Capsule Is a Virulence Determinant in the Pathogenesis of Pasteurella multocida M1404 (B:2) [5]
The Capsule Is a Virulence Determinant in the Pathogenesis of Pasteurella multocida M1404 (B:2). Capsules from a range of pathogenic bacteria are key virulence determinants, and the capsule has been implicated in virulence in Pasteurella multocida
multocida M1404 (B:2) capsule biosynthetic locus (J. The cap locus consists of 15 genes, which can be grouped into three functional regions
In order to construct a mutant impaired in capsule export, the final gene of region 1, cexA, was disrupted by insertion of a tetracycline resistance cassette by allelic replacement. The genotype of the tet(M) ΩcexA mutant was confirmed by Southern hybridization and PCR
Bacterial capsule [6]
The bacteria capsule is a large structure common to many bacteria.[1] It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well-organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.[2][3]
When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as a slime layer. Capsule and slime layer are sometimes summarized under the term glycocalyx.
Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains cannot penetrate the capsule. To visualize encapsulated bacteria using a microscope, a sample is treated with a dark stain, such as India ink
Capsules from Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. Manifest Significant Differences in Structure and Ability to Protect against Phagocytic Cells [7]
Capsules from Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Cryptococcus spp. Manifest Significant Differences in Structure and Ability to Protect against Phagocytic Cells
Members of the fungal Cryptococcus genus are known to produce capsules, which are major determinants of virulence in the highly pathogenic species Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii. Although the lack of virulence of many species of the Cryptococcus genus can be explained solely by the lack of mammalian thermotolerance, it is uncertain whether the capsules from these organisms are comparable to those of the pathogenic cryptococci
liquefaciens has a capsule visible in India ink preparations that was also efficiently labeled by three antibodies generated to specific C. liquefaciens were incorporated onto the cell surface of acapsular C
Capsular Polysaccharides Produced by the Bacterial Pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei [8]
Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads
As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.. Polysaccharide capsules are structures found on the cell surface of a broad range of bacterial species
Treating Bacterial Infections With a Protein From a Virus [9]
Harmful bacteria are microscopic organisms that can sometimes make you very sick. Usually, when harmful bacteria enter our bodies, they are rapidly detected by the immune system, which kills these invaders
However, there are some proteins called capsular depolymerases that can remove the capsules from these harmful bacteria, exposing the bacteria to the immune system, which can then kill them. Therefore, capsular depolymerases can help the immune system to kill harmful bacteria
Have you seen one bacterium? Not with your naked eye! Bacteria are microorganisms that can only be seen using a microscope. These tiny living organisms are everywhere on earth, even in the most extreme environments, like volcanoes and deep oceans
Bacteria – Capsules, Slime, Layers [10]
Many bacterial cells secrete some extracellular material in the form of a capsule or a slime layer. A slime layer is loosely associated with the bacterium and can be easily washed off, whereas a capsule is attached tightly to the bacterium and has definite boundaries
The capsules exclude the ink and appear as clear halos surrounding the bacterial cells. Capsules are usually polymers of simple sugars (polysaccharides), although the capsule of Bacillus anthracis is made of polyglutamic acid
Capsules can protect a bacterial cell from ingestion and destruction by white blood cells (phagocytosis). While the exact mechanism for escaping phagocytosis is unclear, it may occur because capsules make bacterial surface components more slippery, helping the bacterium to escape engulfment by phagocytic cells
Masquerading microbial pathogens: capsular polysaccharides mimic host-tissue molecules [11]
Cress and others, Masquerading microbial pathogens: capsular polysaccharides mimic host-tissue molecules, FEMS Microbiology Reviews, Volume 38, Issue 4, July 2014, Pages 660–697, https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6976.12056. The increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria portends an impending postantibiotic age, characterized by diminishing efficacy of common antibiotics and routine application of multifaceted, complementary therapeutic approaches to treat bacterial infections, particularly multidrug-resistant organisms
Bacterial capsular polysaccharides are a diverse class of high molecular weight polysaccharides contributing to virulence of many human pathogens in the gut, respiratory tree, urinary tract, and other host tissues, by hiding cell surface components that might otherwise elicit host immune response. This review highlights capsular polysaccharides that are structurally identical or similar to polysaccharides found in mammalian tissues, including polysialic acid and glycosaminoglycan capsules hyaluronan, heparosan, and chondroitin
Biosynthetic pathways and capsular involvement in immune system evasion are described, providing a basis for potential therapies aimed at supplementing or replacing antibiotic treatment.. Bacterial capsular polysaccharides (CPSs) are major virulence factors that confer protective effects to their bearers against a wide range of environmental pressures, most notably against the immune system during infection of their animal hosts
Factors Facilitating Microbial Invasion [12]
Microbial invasion can be facilitated by the following:. Virulence factors assist pathogens in invasion and resistance of host defenses; these factors include
read more ) have a capsule that blocks phagocytosis, making these organisms more virulent than nonencapsulated strains. However, capsule-specific opsonic antibodies can bind to the bacterial capsule and facilitate phagocytosis.
Invasive organisms (eg, Shigella flexneri Shigellosis Shigellosis is an acute infection of the intestine caused by the gram-negative Shigella species. Symptoms include fever, nausea, vomiting, tenesmus, and diarrhea that is usually bloody..
Pathogenic Escherichia coli [13]
In addition to being an important member of the normal intestinal microflora of humans and other mammals, the species Escherichia coli contains many pathotypes that cause a variety of diseases. At least six different pathotypes cause enteric disease, such as diarrhoea or dysentery, and other pathotypes cause extra-intestinal infections, including urinary tract infections and meningitis.
coli are frequently encoded on genetic elements such as plasmids, bacteriophage, transposons and pathogenicity islands that can be mobilized into different strains to create novel combinations of virulence factors.. coli pathotypes that have been sequenced so far show a striking mosaic pattern, with 2,000 genes present in 247 islands in one pathotype that are not present in K-12
Genes that encode virulence factors of pathogenic E. coli are regulated by both pathotype-specific regulators that are absent from commensal E
Masking the Pathogen: Evolutionary Strategies of Fungi and Their Bacterial Counterparts [14]
Masking the Pathogen: Evolutionary Strategies of Fungi and Their Bacterial Counterparts. Sugar-Coated Killers: Capsular Structures of Bacteria and a Pathogenic Fungus
Function Follows Form: Capsule Alters Host Immune Responses. Evolutionary Pressures in the Host and Environment: The Red Queen Paradigm
Bacterial capsules and interactions with complement and phagocytes. Influence of the Escherichia coli capsule on complement fixation and on phagocytosis and killing by human phagocytes
15.3: Virulence Factors [15]
– Explain how virulence factors contribute to signs and symptoms of infectious disease. – Describe and differentiate between various types of exotoxins
In the previous section, we explained that some pathogens are more virulent than others. This is due to the unique virulence factors produced by individual pathogens, which determine the extent and severity of disease they may cause
When genes encoding virulence factors are inactivated, virulence in the pathogen is diminished. In this section, we examine various types and specific examples of virulence factors and how they contribute to each step of pathogenesis.
Microbial Ninja Warriors: Bacterial Immune Evasion [16]
A dark, shadowy figure stealthily makes its way through a well-fortified house, successfully sidestepping traps, inactivating alarms, and taking down every guard that it encounters. This may sound like a typical scene from any ninja movie, but a similar scenario occurs whenever a bacterial pathogen successfully enters and infects our bodies
Immune evasion strategies are those bacterial pathogens use to avoid or inactivate host defenses and ensure their own survival within a host. Bacteria are multifaceted in their methods used to escape immune detection
Mastery of these camouflaging and precise weaponry techniques by bacterial pathogens significantly complicates efforts to develop new vaccines and innovative treatments.. To understand how bacteria could develop such intricate evasive techniques, consider how bacterial pathogens have evolved with humans for centuries
What is Bacterial Pathogenesis? [17]
The processes which lead to disease are complex and have many contributing factors both internal and external. This article will provide an overview of bacterial pathogenesis and its contributions to the development of disease within a host organism.
Pathogenicity is the ability of the pathogen to produce disease. Pathogenicity is expressed by microbes using their virulence, or the degree of the microbe’s pathogenicity.
Genetic and molecular factors play a large part in a microorganism’s pathogenicity.. The relationship between host and pathogen is dynamic – each modifies the function and activities of the other
Multiple Choice Questions for Exam 1, Biology 250 [18]
Examples of Multiple Choice Questions for Exam 1, Biology 250. A slippery outer covering in some bacteria that protects them from phagocytosis by host cells is
A shiny, sticky colony of Streptococcus pneumoniae is likely to be. A bacterial cell wall does all of the following except
A Gram negative cell wall is __________ than a Gram positive one.. Because penicillin prevents peptidoglycan synthesis, it is more effective on _______________ cells.
Anthrax Sterne strain (34F2) of Bacillus anthracis [19]
– What is the Sterne strain (34F2) of Bacillus anthracis?. – Can the Sterne strain cause infections in people?
– What can those exposed do to decrease their risk of anthrax?. – What is the Sterne strain (34F2) of Bacillus anthracis and am I at risk for being infected?
Bacillus anthracis is a spore-forming bacterium that causes anthrax in humans and animals. anthracis has 3 main virulence factors coded on 2 plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2
Sources
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22253734/
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_capsule
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22253734/#:~:text=Capsule%20production%20is%20common%20among,Cryptococcus%20neoformans%20and%20Cryptococcus%20gattii.
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8260180/#:~:text=One%20key%20bacterial%20adaptation%20is,immune%20system%20of%20the%20host.
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC97626/#:~:text=Capsules%20have%20a%20significant%20role,7%2C%2031%2C%2035).
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_capsule
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3257238/
- https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/40582
- https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/648764
- https://www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/Capsules-and-slime-layers
- https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/38/4/660/757098
- https://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/biology-of-infectious-disease/factors-facilitating-microbial-invasion
- https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro818
- https://www.mdpi.com/2309-608X/1/3/397
- https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(OpenStax)/15%3A_Microbial_Mechanisms_of_Pathogenicity/15.03%3A_Virulence_Factors
- https://asm.org/Articles/2018/December/Microbial-Ninja-Warriors-Bacterial-Immune-Evasion
- https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-is-Bacterial-Pathogenesis.aspx
- https://www.siue.edu/~cbwilso/250mult1_00.htm
- https://www.cdc.gov/anthrax/resources/anthrax-sterne-strain.html
